Academic Career Development in Indonesia and the United Kingdom: A Systematic Literature Review

Lecturers are an essential element of a higher education institution. The lecturer has two functions in Indonesia, namely an educator and a researcher who has the job in developing and deploying science, technology, and art to the community through the Three Pillars of Higher Education activities: education, research, and community services. This study aims to investigate and answer the three research questions, which involve how the academic career development system for lecturers, how the academic career development patterns for lecturers, and the factors which affect the academic career in Indonesia and the United Kingdom (UK). We chose the UK since it is one of the countries with the most robust higher education system globally. This research was required to capture the gap in academic career development for lecturers in Indonesia and the UK. There are 23 journal articles and other literature included and found using systematic literature review and PRISMA protocol. These journal articles and other literature analyzed by meta-synthesis and could describe the comparative perspectives between an academic career in Indonesia and the UK. These review results can be an excellent comparison for improving higher education systems, specifically in the academic career development for Indonesian lecturers. A significant improvement will encourage universities in Indonesia to embrace the vision as a world-class university.


Introduction
Lecturers are an essential element of a higher education institution. The lecturer has two functions in Indonesia, namely an educator and a researcher who has the job in developing and deploying science, technology, and art to the community through the Three Pillars of Higher Education activities: education, research, and community services. Indonesian lecturers have the same jobs as in other countries in general. Job description for lecturers in most countries is conducting teaching, research, and community services (Pechar & Andres, 2015). The lecturer's capacities and competencies also need to develop according to the talent management concept. An educational institution should implement talent management to discover, develop, and maintain talented human resources. Talent management can increase organizational value and assist in organizational development (Davies & Davies, 2011). One of the strategies in implementing talent management is to consider human resources as an investment and should develop their career. The vision and mission of the higher education system in a country must be able to develop the academic career of the lecturers seriously.
The world-class university that higher education institutions in Indonesia want to achieve is to answer the challenges of globalization. Human resources in higher education must have global competitiveness. World-class university criteria: 1) research excellence, 2) academic freedom and an atmosphere of intellectual joy, 3) strong self-management, 4 ) facilities and collaboration with international institutions, 5) diversity, 6) internationalization, 7) democratic leadership, 8) use of information technology, 9) quality of learning, 10) relations between society and society, and 11) internal collaboration on campus (Levin et al., 2006;Mastuki, 2015). Hence, lecturers have an essential role in their country and institution to compete globally (Kim, 2017). Previous study conducted a comparative analysis of how the academic career system in the European and American countries (Garomssa & Yasmin, 2016). Then, they compared two developing countries, Bangladesh and Ethiopia. The result showed a gap or difference in the educational career systems among European and American countries, Bangladesh and Ethiopia. This previous study shows how the academic career compared to one country to another.
Indonesia's education is far behind other nations because the efficiency, capacity, and expertise of academic human capital have not reached the skills and credentials of the profession and position held (Yuliawati, 2012). The Times Higher Education World's University Ranking 2021 shows evidence that Indonesia higher education institution is lagging. Universitas Indonesia, which is considered the best university in Indonesia, is ranked 801-1000 globally. Institut Teknologi Bandung as the second position and Universitas Brawijaya in the third position in Indonesia is ranked 1001+ globally based on this list. This study compares Indonesia and developed countries with the most robust higher education system and the world-class university, the UK. The QS Higher Education System Strength Rankings in 2018 reported that the UK is the second country with the most robust higher education system in the world. The long history of their higher education can be a tremendous comparative so that Indonesia gains a world-class higher education system. The gradual academics promotion represents improved knowledge for a lecturer (Astuti et al., 2013).
During this period, the comparative study of the career development of Indonesian lecturers and other countries is still rare. The differences between the academic career system in Indonesia and other countries are still vague. There are three fundamental reasons why a review about academic career development is needed (Zacher et al., 2019). First, working as an academic is a unique profession and has challenges compared to other professions. Second, at this time of competition between academics was getting more challenging in their jobs, so they needed to develop their careers. Therefore, a review of academic career development will open their eyes. Third, academic development studies can be very dependent on the field of knowledge. This condition makes it difficult for a lecturer and college leader or higher education policymaker to find a review that can integrate them all.
This review aims to discuss the gaps between the higher education system in Indonesia and the UK. This study answers how the academic career development system for Indonesian and UK lecturers is, how the academic career development pattern for Indonesian and UK lecturers is, and what the influence factors of the academic career development for Indonesian and UK lecturers are. This study provides comprehensive information related to the academic career development for Indonesian and UK lecturers. Eventually, this article can be a supporting reference related to the academic career development decision-making in Indonesia.

Method
This study used a systematic literature review. The systematic literature review is a method and process to identify and examine the findings. The aims are to collect and analyze the data from previous studies (Snyder, 2019). The researchers used a systematic literature review since it can answer the research questions in this article. It can also provide current evidence-based information since there are validity and accountability. The systematic literature review steps are: 1) determining the research questions; 2) designing review protocols; 3) determining the articles to be used and conducting a comprehensive search; 4) improving a coding framework; 5) considering the results (Secundo et al., 2020).
The journal articles and other literature were included in the last ten years from 2011 to 2021 to answer the research questions. The sources came from various search engines which contain scientific journals, such as Science Direct, Proquest, and Google Scholar. Moreover, the researchers used Google to find other literature and complete previous related journal articles. The researchers used several keywords related to the research questions. The review protocols used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) method. PRISMA is a method to review literature systematically. It started with the flowchart to find the literature. Then, this method assessed the eligibility to obtain comprehensive information from the literature (Liberati et al., 2009). The researchers used meta-synthesis to analyze data qualitatively. Meta-synthesis is a systematic review method with a qualitative approach to synthesize or summarize the research results (Siswanto, 2010). The researchers used Mendeley to organize journal articles and other literature. Further, these were analyzed using ATLAS.ti to compile the framework from the findings easily.

Results
This article used Boolean notation as search keywords, involve "AND" and "OR" to be more focused and specific related to the topic in this study. The search keywords used English to find English literature, while the Indonesian literature used Indonesian search keywords. Table 1 shows the search keywords. "UK academic career" Google 9,810 "pengembangan karier dosen" Google Scholar 64 Most scientific journal articles could not answer the research questions since they did not conform to this study. Consequently, a screening process is essential to do. Screening is a process to examine the literature, whether it conformed to the inclusion criteria or not. The researchers removed the literature if it conformed to the exclusion criteria. Table 2 shows the inclusion and exclusion criteria of this review. Figure 1 is the PRISMA protocol flowchart that shows steps to find the eligible literature.

Inclusion Criteria
The literature discusses Indonesia or UK The literature publication year was 2011 to 2021 The literature investigates the career development system. The literature investigates the similarities and differences of the career development patterns for lecturers The literature investigates the factors that influence the career development of lecturers.

Exclusion Criteria
The literature discusses country besides Indonesia or UK The literature is not in full text The literature cannot answer one of the three research questions Figure 1 shows that 23 articles and other literature should be analyzed to answer the research questions. The collected literature consisted of six qualitative studies, nine reviews, two mixed-method studies, and six other literature types. Subsequently, those articles and other literature were analyzed qualitatively using the meta-synthesis method. Based on the findings, there were still few in the UK and Indonesia journal articles that discussed the career development systems in detail related to the research questions. It was in line with the findings that the academic career studies in the UK mostly focused on the early career, the reason for being a lecturer, education, socialization job search, and coaching of doctoral students become lecturer (Carraher et al., 2014).  Table 3.  Table 4 about the academic promotion process for lecturer and the promotion process of civil servant lecturer. Table 4 shows how academic promotion relates to civil servant rank and classification. The UK has a specific academic career design for accomodating researchers. The academic career for a researcher begins with the assistant researcher and continues with fixed-term. In the final career ladder, researchers could be a lecturer (Garomssa & Yasmin, 2016). Figure 2 showed the career ladder of research-only, teaching-and-research, and teaching-only in the UK. In the UK, the academic career ladder is determined based on grades 6 to 9 (Human Resources University of St Andrews, 2021). The grade is a UK stipulation for determining salary. University policies determine the grades and positions for lecturers, and they may be different from each other.

Figure 2. The Career Ladder
The comparison between the academic career development system in Indonesia and the UK, as shown in Table 5, can be examined in five aspects: 1) regulation; 2) minimum educational qualification; 3) lecturer status; 4) process; and 5) requirement. The minimum educational qualification as a lecturer is a master's degree (S-2).
The minimum educational qualification as a lecturer is a holder of a Ph.D. degree. Lecturer Status -Indonesian lecturers consist of civil servant lecturers, non-civil servant tenured lecturers, peculiar lecturers (professional and retired), and adjunct lecturers (part-time) -The academic position consists of tenured lecturers, civil servants and non-civil servants, and professional lecturers and retired.
There are three types of academics (lecturer and researcher) -Permanent contract -Fixed-term contract -Fixed-term contract lecturers can be tenured lecturers with a permanent contract if they pass the test (Pechar & Andres, 2015). The academics should spend four years to be a lecturer after finishing their Ph.D. degree, and they should spend 5-6 years to obtain academic promotion (Zhang et al., 2018). -Work assessment for academic promotion based on a combination field of 1) research; 2) teaching; 3) impact, scope, knowledge transfer, and technology transfer; and 4) dedication and leadership Requirement -Conforming to the cumulative credit point -Conforming to specific requirements and other non-academic requirements Lecturers have to conform to academic career framework regulation in their university.

Discussion
The findings show that the higher education system in each country is unique and different. The differences are the types of academic positions, the number of positions, each position's task, the recruitment process, and the career ladder (Frølich et al., 2018). The way of life and the educational systems in Indonesia are different from other countries (Toyibah, 2018). There are five types of higher education institutions in Indonesia: university, polytechnic, institute, college, and academy. These types implement the Three Pillars of Higher Education. The Three Pillars of Higher Education is the responsibility of higher education institutions to implement education and teaching, research, and community services. The UK, as a developed country, has research universities specialized in research. Hence, UK calls educators who work in a university as "academic" in many studies. An academic covers two types: lecturer and researcher. In the 1980s, the UK abolished the permanent academic position, but several professor positions gained a permanent contract (Angermuller, 2017). The determination of permanent and non-permanent contracts based on the academic job. Table 6 shows three academic types in the UK based on the contract and function. The academics in teaching-only are part-time contracts. In contrast, the academics in research-only are fixed-term contracts, and the academics in teaching-andresearch are full-time contracts (Jenter et al., 2011). In the UK, the academic contract used probation. Probation is a fixed-term contract where the academics gain a permanent contract by assessing (Garomssa & Yasmin, 2016). It means that the contract will discontinue when the academics do not conform to the contract requirements or performances.
The academic career design is fundamental to the academic career development pattern. The academic career development pattern success depends on the educational qualifications, the probation period before being a tenured lecturer, and the transparent and predictable career ladder (Garomssa & Yasmin, 2016). The academic career development pattern plays roles as a conveyor of institutional strategic goals, an creator of effective and efficient human resources, and counterbalanced competition (Bennett, 2015). This systematic literature review shows that most of the literature discussed the affecting factors of academic career development for lecturers. The analysis results show that Indonesia and the UK had similar affecting factors because lecturers in Indonesia and the UK had similar main tasks and functions, namely implementing teaching, research, and community services. Those factors could be classified into two types, involve internal and external factors. Internal factors come from the lecturer itself. The internal factors are academic status, intrinsic motivation, outcome, educational qualification, negotiation skill, and activeness.
The academics difficulties in obtaining a permanent contract affect anxiety in the UK, especially for young academics. Anxiety includes the uncertainty of the future (Garomssa & Yasmin, 2016). This condition made the high competition between academics. The high motivation academics would work hard with more workloads. One of the motivations is gaining a permanent contract. This motivation could be a reason why the UK has a better higher education system than Indonesia. In Indonesia, civil servant lecturers cause academics to feel more secure about their future. The comfort and secure feeling reduced the ability to think creatively and innovatively. This condition resulted in the quality of the higher education system becoming difficult to compete globally. However, this status could also support Indonesian lecturers to work well without thinking about their future careers. Intrinsic motivation comes from the individual inside. High and low motivation will affect academic development. Intrinsic motivation can obstruct the lecturer's career, for example, a lack of enthusiasm to change their academic viewpoint and attitudes. The lack of motivation and eagerness to improve and their teaching activities impact the lack of time to conduct research and community services (Mulawarman et al., 2016). On the other hand, this motivation can encourage lecturer career development since it will release discipline, persistence, and accuracy characteristics (Astuti et al., 2013). The other characteristics that can encourage their career are prioritizing tasks, working hard, and willing to sacrifice (Beigi et al., 2018).
The outcome is one of the essential factors in the lecturer career, such as scientific work (Lestari AS, 2015). A lecturer should create scientific work to publish, for example, in making scientific papers on scientific research and improving knowledge or innovative products for society. Educational qualification is an essential factor in career development. In Indonesia, lecturers with master's degrees have to increase their educational qualifications to develop their academic careers (Astuti et al., 2013). This higher qualification is needed because intellectual capital affects work behavior and lecturer performance significantly (Rahim et al., 2017). Negotiation skill is also essential in academic career development for lecturers. A lecturer must conduct a good negotiation, such as obtaining research funding or collaboration in an international environment. It will assist him/her better than other lecturers (Kim, 2017). A lecturer should search and participate in supporting activities actively. These activities will support the lecturer's career development-for example, the first, attending scientific conferences. Scientific conferences are an excellent medium for sharing knowledge, improving knowledge, expanding social networks, increasing productivity, and tutoring young lecturers (Sanders et al., 2020). Second, lecturers can attend research grant activities to get research funding.
External factors are factors beyond the individual. The external factors are work environment, academic movement, gender, mentoring, and professional network. The work environment can interrupt and encourage career development for lecturers. The work environment should be conducive, fun, and secure, encouraging lecturer performance. Meanwhile, the cheerless work environment decreased career development (Ranieri et al., 2016). For example, Gadjah Mada University supported career development by providing grants for further studies, domestic and abroad. They also provided an incentive for research and publication activities, collaborated with Educational Fund Management Institution (Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan or LPDP) to accelerate more Ph.D. degree lecturers. Provide facilities for increasing knowledge and insight through dialogues, scientific conferences, and many others. Other universities in Indonesia also implemented it. The academic movement caused academic career development to be very competitive (Kim, 2017). The academic movement is conducting lecturers transfer from a country to another. Today, lecturers compete both nationally and internationally. International lecturers have the potential to build a better career. Knowledge and culture networks can also enhance academics careers significantly. All academics compete to gain their remarkable career. Therefore, foreign academics are more considered in Indonesia since they have more networks and experiences (Toyibah, 2018).
Gender is one of the issues that affect a career. The female lecturers' career disruption sources are personal problems, staff regulations, work environment, and culture (Mulawarman et al., 2016). In Indonesia and the UK, gender becomes an external factor since the environmental and cultural factors. Based on empirical research, female academics prefer to teach than research. They consider teaching since it has a flexible time (Edmunds et al., 2016). However, several female lecturers can develop their careers optimally even though they made some sacrifices. Mentoring from senior lecturers plays an essential role in young lecturers' career development (Ranieri et al., 2016). Most lecturers cannot work independently. They should have a professional network to accomplish their work and develop their career. Therefore, teamwork is a need for all professions, including lecturers. Teamwork is useful for generating opportunities and innovations in increasing knowledge and influencing significant career development (Ansmann et al., 2014).
All of the findings indicated a gap between the career development systems for lecturers in Indonesia and the UK. This review's findings are related to the previous study (Garomssa & Yasmin, 2016;Kim, 2017;Pechar & Andres, 2015;Zacher et al., 2019). Based on Table 6, Indonesian regulations cause the lecturers to feel challenging to fulfill the regulations. Besides, the career development for Indonesian lecturers has many aspects, so that it requires a long process and time-consuming. On the other hand, in the UK academic career model put more emphasis on academic skill to work internationally. Massive internationalization in UK higher education system made them have an excellent reputation in the world. That is why the UK has many world-class universities. The difference between tenure-track in Indonesia and probation model in the UK shows the uniqueness of academic career development in each country (Garomssa & Yasmin, 2016). Indonesia and the UK have the same factors in academic career development. The factors are suitable with the study that factors that affect academic professions are the ability and motivation of individuals, working conditions, organizations, policies, and other things that affect developments (e.g., country's regulations, organizational culture, or public services) (Zacher et al., 2019). Besides the differences, Indonesia and the UK have a similar goal. Academic career development is an individual investment to increase human capital in higher education institutions (Lestari AS, 2015). The biggest challenge is junior academics. Young lecturers should be involved in work programs as gradual and continuous learning (Satori & Suryana, 2013). The government higher education programs in 2020-2025 are increasing international competitiveness. In Indonesia, the mandate of a vision for world-class universities appears in the Higher Education Long Term Strategy (HELTS) (Astuti et al., 2013), but implementing this policy is not maximal yet.

Conclusions and Suggestions
Lecturers, as academics, are an essential aspect of the higher education system. Therefore, career development for a lecturer is vital for improving higher education quality. This systematic literature review generated a comparative study of academic career development in Indonesia and the UK. The results of the review were able to answer the three research questions. The gaps in career development systems between Indonesia and the UK because of the different challenges. The different career development patterns in Indonesia and UK illustrate how the career development system in each country and becomes one of the country's uniqueness. In Indonesia and the UK, there are some factors in the career development for lecturers, internal and external factors. The internal factors are academic status, intrinsic motivation, outcome, educational qualification, negotiation skill, and activeness. The external factors are work environment, academic movement, gender, mentoring, and professional network. This review results do not mean that Indonesia should follow all the UK methods. However, Indonesia can combine good aspects from the UK, specifically on internationalization, with the good aspects of Indonesia. Indonesia should take serious consideration and implement internationalization policy in the higher education system. Internationalization is the best way to achieve a world-class university, and the lecturers become a vital part of it. Academic career development should become one of the focus fields of research because the career development revolution is a long process. We need to investigate in-depth to find the best formula for a country.